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Golden Tanager (Tangara arthus)
Golden Tanager (Tangara arthus)
Life History
Food
Main food taken: The Golden Tanager eats the succulent fruits of trees and shrubs as well as insects, making it an omnivore. The Golden Tanager prefers arthropods and spends more than half of its foraging time searching for them (Naoki 2003b). Insects typically are sought on the upper side of branches (Isler and Isler 1999). Because of the cryptic coloration of arthropods, time spent foraging is less successful than when foraging for fruit (Naoki 2003b). Fruit foraging is much more efficient because the plants sought are designed to attract animal dispersers such as the Golden Tanager. The fruits on such plants are distinctive in shape and coloration and catch the attention of many animals (Naoki 2003b).
Behavior
Foraging: Golden Tanagers forage in the canopy area of montane evergreen forests (Parker et al. 1996). When foraging for food the Golden Tanager travels along mossy branches and peers underneath them (Ridgley and Tudor 1989). When foraging for fruit, the Golden Tanager may hang upside down from the petiole; it also hangs off of vines or moss in search of insects (Hilty and Brown 1986). Naoki (2003a) quantified foraging behavior of several Tangara species, including two subspecies of Golden Tanager. When foraging for arthropods, Tangara arthus sophiae almost always searched within moss (38% of observations) or partially moss-covered branches (56% of observations). The most common arthropod foraging techniques used were "hang-down" (49%),"reach-down" (31%), and glean (9%) (classification of foraging maneuvers follows Remsen and Robinson 1990). Most arthropod foraging occurred at a height of 5-10 m (54%) or under 5 m (33%). The foraging behavior of Tangara arthus goodsoni was similar. Most arthropod foraging occurred within moss (41%) or partially moss-covered branches (22%). The most common arthropod attack manuevers were "hang-down" (35%), reach down (30%), and glean (15%), and foraging typically occurred from 5-10 m (74%) or under 5 m (15%). When foraging on fruit, the most common attack manuever used by Tangara arthus sophiae was the glean (62%), typically from a height of 5-10 m (45%) or under 5 m (53%). Most of the fruit taken was Miconia. Tangara arthus goodsoni foraged for fruit in a similar manner (glean, 63%). However, this subspecies typically foraged at greater heights (5-10 m, 44%; 10-15 m, 41%) and had a more varied diet (Miconia, 51%; Trema, 12.3%; Hedyosum, 5%). Differences in fruit foraging between the two subspecies likely reflect geographic variation in fruit availability, whereas arthropod foraging behaviors appear more stereotyped withinTangara species (Naoki 2003a).
Locomotion: The Golden Tanager can move quickly from branch to branch when necessary, but is often found hopping along mossy branches when searching for food (Hilty and Brown 1986).
Territoriality
No information.
Sexual Behavior
Courtship display: In captivity, Tangara arthus aurulenta was recorded performing a mating display. Most notably, the male and female mirror each other’s movements. During this display the head moves upwards, the wings drop, and the tail is raised. The visual display is coupled with shrill notes that end in a long trailing note (Cairpaglini 1971).
Social and interspecific behavior
The Golden Tanager occurs in groups of up to five individuals that travel in mixed species flocks, usually with other species of tanagers (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Isler and Isler 1999). In Venezuela, however, the Golden Tanager reportedly may travel in groups of up to 30 individuals (Schäfer and Phelps 1954). Within mixed species flocks the Golden Tanager is considered a nuclear species because its vocalizations and displays influence the formation of the flock (Bohórquez 2003).
Predation
No information.
Reproduction
Nests: In captivity, the male Tangara arthus aurulenta male begins a visual nuptial display by presenting an offering to the female, such as twigs for the nest. The female builds the nest using leaves, twigs, or any other suitable plant material available (Cairpaglini 1971). Outside of captivity, the nests are generally found on mossy limbs and can be burrowed into the moss itself (Isler and Isler 1999). Nest building varies but has been recorded in July, September, and October. Begging juveniles have been documented in May, July, and August (Hilty and Brown 1986). In Ecuador, Greeney and Nunnery (2006) report an observation of nest-building on 28 February and an observation of dependent fledglings for 18 August. In the most detailed published information on nesting behavior, Gelis et al. (2006) record observations at a nest found on 31 March with two newly hatched chicks. The cup nest was about 10 meters above ground in a clump of epiphytes. The two young fledged 11 and 12 days later; thus Gelis et al. (2006) estimate that the nestling period lasts about two weeks.
Clutch Size: One to two eggs are laid at a time (Cairpaglini 1971).
Incubation: Incubation lasts 10-15 days (Cairpaglini 1971).
Parental Care: In captivity, Tangara arthus aurulenta females were observed eating the excreta of the young or throwing it away from the nest. Typically the female fed the young but sometimes the male would help to feed or chase away intruders from the nest (Cairpaglini 1971). In the field, Gelis et al. (2006) also report the removal of faecal sacs early during the nestling period. Young were fed and attended by multiple adults, making this species one of the few tanagers for which cooperative breeding has been documented (Gelis et al. 2006). Of 68 visits to the nest, 20 where made by three adult plumaged birds. These adults vocalized loudly and fed the young both arthropods and fruit.
Populations and Demography
There is no information related to topics such as age at first breeding, life span and survivorship, dispersal, or population regulation
Life History
Food
Main food taken: The Golden Tanager eats the succulent fruits of trees and shrubs as well as insects, making it an omnivore. The Golden Tanager prefers arthropods and spends more than half of its foraging time searching for them (Naoki 2003b). Insects typically are sought on the upper side of branches (Isler and Isler 1999). Because of the cryptic coloration of arthropods, time spent foraging is less successful than when foraging for fruit (Naoki 2003b). Fruit foraging is much more efficient because the plants sought are designed to attract animal dispersers such as the Golden Tanager. The fruits on such plants are distinctive in shape and coloration and catch the attention of many animals (Naoki 2003b).
Behavior
Foraging: Golden Tanagers forage in the canopy area of montane evergreen forests (Parker et al. 1996). When foraging for food the Golden Tanager travels along mossy branches and peers underneath them (Ridgley and Tudor 1989). When foraging for fruit, the Golden Tanager may hang upside down from the petiole; it also hangs off of vines or moss in search of insects (Hilty and Brown 1986). Naoki (2003a) quantified foraging behavior of several Tangara species, including two subspecies of Golden Tanager. When foraging for arthropods, Tangara arthus sophiae almost always searched within moss (38% of observations) or partially moss-covered branches (56% of observations). The most common arthropod foraging techniques used were "hang-down" (49%),"reach-down" (31%), and glean (9%) (classification of foraging maneuvers follows Remsen and Robinson 1990). Most arthropod foraging occurred at a height of 5-10 m (54%) or under 5 m (33%). The foraging behavior of Tangara arthus goodsoni was similar. Most arthropod foraging occurred within moss (41%) or partially moss-covered branches (22%). The most common arthropod attack manuevers were "hang-down" (35%), reach down (30%), and glean (15%), and foraging typically occurred from 5-10 m (74%) or under 5 m (15%). When foraging on fruit, the most common attack manuever used by Tangara arthus sophiae was the glean (62%), typically from a height of 5-10 m (45%) or under 5 m (53%). Most of the fruit taken was Miconia. Tangara arthus goodsoni foraged for fruit in a similar manner (glean, 63%). However, this subspecies typically foraged at greater heights (5-10 m, 44%; 10-15 m, 41%) and had a more varied diet (Miconia, 51%; Trema, 12.3%; Hedyosum, 5%). Differences in fruit foraging between the two subspecies likely reflect geographic variation in fruit availability, whereas arthropod foraging behaviors appear more stereotyped withinTangara species (Naoki 2003a).
Locomotion: The Golden Tanager can move quickly from branch to branch when necessary, but is often found hopping along mossy branches when searching for food (Hilty and Brown 1986).
Territoriality
No information.
Sexual Behavior
Courtship display: In captivity, Tangara arthus aurulenta was recorded performing a mating display. Most notably, the male and female mirror each other’s movements. During this display the head moves upwards, the wings drop, and the tail is raised. The visual display is coupled with shrill notes that end in a long trailing note (Cairpaglini 1971).
Social and interspecific behavior
The Golden Tanager occurs in groups of up to five individuals that travel in mixed species flocks, usually with other species of tanagers (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Isler and Isler 1999). In Venezuela, however, the Golden Tanager reportedly may travel in groups of up to 30 individuals (Schäfer and Phelps 1954). Within mixed species flocks the Golden Tanager is considered a nuclear species because its vocalizations and displays influence the formation of the flock (Bohórquez 2003).
Predation
No information.
Reproduction
Nests: In captivity, the male Tangara arthus aurulenta male begins a visual nuptial display by presenting an offering to the female, such as twigs for the nest. The female builds the nest using leaves, twigs, or any other suitable plant material available (Cairpaglini 1971). Outside of captivity, the nests are generally found on mossy limbs and can be burrowed into the moss itself (Isler and Isler 1999). Nest building varies but has been recorded in July, September, and October. Begging juveniles have been documented in May, July, and August (Hilty and Brown 1986). In Ecuador, Greeney and Nunnery (2006) report an observation of nest-building on 28 February and an observation of dependent fledglings for 18 August. In the most detailed published information on nesting behavior, Gelis et al. (2006) record observations at a nest found on 31 March with two newly hatched chicks. The cup nest was about 10 meters above ground in a clump of epiphytes. The two young fledged 11 and 12 days later; thus Gelis et al. (2006) estimate that the nestling period lasts about two weeks.
Clutch Size: One to two eggs are laid at a time (Cairpaglini 1971).
Incubation: Incubation lasts 10-15 days (Cairpaglini 1971).
Parental Care: In captivity, Tangara arthus aurulenta females were observed eating the excreta of the young or throwing it away from the nest. Typically the female fed the young but sometimes the male would help to feed or chase away intruders from the nest (Cairpaglini 1971). In the field, Gelis et al. (2006) also report the removal of faecal sacs early during the nestling period. Young were fed and attended by multiple adults, making this species one of the few tanagers for which cooperative breeding has been documented (Gelis et al. 2006). Of 68 visits to the nest, 20 where made by three adult plumaged birds. These adults vocalized loudly and fed the young both arthropods and fruit.
Populations and Demography
There is no information related to topics such as age at first breeding, life span and survivorship, dispersal, or population regulation
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